© 2009 Richard Pallaziol, Weapons of Choice ™- all rights reserved
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Africa
The birthplace of humanity is found in the plains of the great continent, and with the earliest human fossilized remains we find the first tools – and the first weapons. A full survey of all of the cultures, empires, and battles of Africa is beyond the scope of this (or any single) book, so I’ll just point out a couple of examples.
Raiding parties. Before the conquest of the continent during European colonization, most coastal kingdoms and tribes conducted trade with neighboring tribes, and with a certain frequency would conduct raids on their neighbors as well. Though many achieved great wealth and ofttimes the subjugation of tribes within a large area, the action of raiding warfare followed the broad basic strategy as the same raids seen in pre-iron cultures the world over. The specific intent was usually to steal cattle, food, or even land, and a side benefit was the taking of captives both male and female for use as slaves. A number of the most physically fit members of the tribe would attack either isolated members of the opposing tribe or attack at a time when the population would not be able to mount a counter attack. Should they find themselves confronted with serious resistance, the raid would be abandoned. If the tribes were of relatively equal strength or size, each raid would in time lead to a reprisal raid. Deaths were not planned, but were hardly unknown. The most isolated tribes still retain some aspects of this raiding warfare style to this day, especially where grazing land is scarce due to the thickness of flora or paucity of arable land.
Weapons were universally spears, knives, axes, and clubs. It is interesting to note that Sub-Saharan Africa never went through a bronze age, their first metal for tools being iron, usually of exceptional quality. Iron (and then steel) full length swords were introduced very early on in those areas in the north and east that had trade contact with the Middle East and the Mediterranean (Sudan being the best example), but the trend didn’t extend into the south, center, or west of the continent. An exception is the Masai, who have beautiful elongated leaf-shaped blades on simple handles with no guards. But then again these nomads of Kenya originated in Sudan, and brought their technology with them.
Much of Northern Africa maintained extensive trade with the Middle East, India, and China, so a variety of weapons are found amoung these post-Carthage, post-Pharaohic kingdoms. As several had access to and bred exceptional stocks of horses, many also adapted fighting with lance and archery from horseback.
Attempts to include regional differences in weaponry when mounting a show is laudable, but can be very difficult, for the vast majority of weapons that are in museums have turned out to be purely ceremonial or were constructed for trade between tribes, so either way were never intended for battle. For example, the vast collection of “throwing” knives that intrigued the European explorers of the 19th century have turned out to have been either used as currency or were hacking tools, never thrown. The exception is among certain tribes in the Congo, especially around Zaire (most strikingly the Zande tribe) and southern Sudan, where knives were thrown, and it seems only for two distinct purposes:
1] As the Saharan warriors often had horses and lances, the large throwing knives, thrown Frisbee-like rather than overhand, would have been an extremely effective weapon against a mounted combatant, better than a thrown spear. It is certainly possible that the throwing knives were developed near the Saharan border and then the practice migrated south.
2] Be that as it may, for the tribes of the Kongo kingdom (modern Zaire) these weapons were part of their ritual warfare. When fighting against other non-horsed tribes, the throwing knifes and spears were used on behalf of the chief for their set-piece battles, never for raiding. The defense against the missiles consisted of using a very large wicker shield to deflect the higher missiles and very athletic leaps if the knives were thrown low. Many of these moves survive in their traditional battle dances.
The great generalization can be made that the areas of savanna and desert tend to have nomadic herders, while the tribes dwelling in jungle and woodland tended towards agriculture. The herders tended toward more practical weapons, while the farmers/gatherers tended to the more ceremonial and ornate. But throughout, there are few weapons that can be described as swords. Shorter edged weapons were definitely daggers, and the longer pieces were more like impaling or puncturing weapons and are akin to short pikes. These are also seen with greater frequency among the cattle herding tribes of central Africa.
The countries with direct access to the Mediterranean and to the Red Sea had the edged sword very early on, often purchasing full length blades from Middle Eastern manufacturers and then fitting their own hilts, but based on existing European and Arabian layouts. What we would consider single hand medieval broadswords were in common use throughout Northern Africa, and indeed were more common than curved blades. Curved weapons, however, were usually much more exaggerated than Arab designs, with many interesting shapes and more severe curvatures in the blades.
Of special interest to fight choreographers is that Sudanese nomads often wore an arm dagger, strapped to the left forearm with the blade tip at the elbow. From that placement we can assume that the knife was pulled and used by the right hand in a standard overhand grip. From this we must also deduce that it was a defensive tool, a weapon of last resort.
In areas where cattle were raised in larger numbers, raiding existed along with “primitive” warfare. From time immemorial, the essential pattern of warfare in the South African region was a ritualized affair, either as an escalation of several raids or as a result of insults, perceived or otherwise. For these larger set-piece battles, warriors consisted of virtually the entire tribal population, meeting at opposite ends of a prearranged field. The bravest male contingencies from both sides would stand in the front lines, hurling occasional spears and a constant shower of verbal invective. Bravery was proven by standing in the middle of the spear and arrow landing zone and evading the projectiles at the last moment. If anyone’s arrow or spear actually killed someone, the fighter who threw the spear would immediately withdraw from the battlefield and perform a purification ritual. Most of the spears could be safely evaded, and after a time one side would seem to have demonstrated more martial spirit, intimidating the other side into submission. For the most part these were civilized and quite bloodless affairs. Thus it might have remained were it not for one brilliant and ruthless ruler.
Shaka Zulu was born an illegitimate and early on was cast out with his mother to a neighboring tribe. Once he began military training he convinced the chief to allow him to lead one small band of warriors in a training program of his own devising. Every aspect of tactics, strategy and materials was overhauled. The thin sandals, which he felt gave poor footing, were discarded and his warriors went barefoot. The spear was reduced to four feet long, but now fitted with a heavy foot-long cutting head. The shield was given a new pointed elliptical shape. His warriors were also specifically drilled in conditioning exercises as well as detailed martial arts training.
The first battle with his new army was a terrifying spectacle. Shaka’s troops charged the opposing force, ignoring the few spears which were thrown at them and holding onto [not throwing] their own. As soon as they reached the front line, they used the points of their shields to scoop up the shields of their opponents, exposing the lower torso, into which was thrust the heavy tip of the new spear, instantly disemboweling the enemy. (The new spears were named “iklwa” – an approximation of the sound made when thrusting and pulling it out of the enemy’s body) The destruction of the enemy was total, as was the terror of the survivors who fled the field.
Shaka went on to become a general of his adoptive tribe, then conqueror and chief of his birth tribe, and finally emperor of the vast area known as Zululand. During his reign from 1816 to 1828, his enemies tried to adapt to the new battle style, but he adapted faster. Turning his attention from tactics to strategy, he developed a battle formation of a central powerful line supported by two faster moving wings, which he referred to as the “horns of the bull”. The horns were used to control the movement of the enemy, and then finally crush the opposing army in what was known in Europe as a pincer movement.
As Shaka increased in power so did his ruthlessness and his insistence on absolute discipline. To make sure that his warriors had toughened the soles of their feet sufficiently, he tested them by having them dance barefoot in a kraal covered with nettles. Any soldier who so much as flinched was instantly killed with a spear.
One can only guess as to what might have been the future of the region had not the English arrived in force in the late 1800’s. Perhaps the creation of another Rome or China. But the rapid fire machine guns and accurate rifles of the Europeans soon led to the destruction of Zulu control of their empire, though not before giving the English their worst fear of their sub-Saharan campaign.
The training required for Zulu warriors was far more expensive than that of other African nations, but it was not particularly intricate or complicated. The training centered on toughening up the warriors to enured to pain. A “sport” amoung the younger warriors involved a form of stick fighting, with poles the length of the shield and spear that they would later use as full-fledged warriors. Some of these training moves still survive today, although the schools of “Zulu martial arts” that have sprung up in the United States are a poor blending of Asian techniques modified for African weapons. These schools and the techniques that they teach have no real correlation to any historical practices.
By the time Europeans began carving up the continent to secure slaves, diamonds and gold, native resistance throughout Africa followed a familiar pattern. Most insurgents, although large in number, fought with spear and sword. Although possessing a fair number of trade rifles, the quality of the firearms sold to natives was usually at least one generation behind whatever the invading Europeans were using. Spare parts were nonexistent as were quality gunpowder and bullets. Many native contingents never mastered firing from the shoulder, preferring to fire from the hip or from outstretched arms to avoid painful recoil, but this also meant that shots rarely found their mark. Their most successful tactic was usually the massed infantry charge, but even when fully armed with modern repeating rifles and capable of implementing sophisticated tactics, they were no match against cannon, artillery and machine guns.
North American Indigenous Cultures
Politics/Economics – Speaking of course in generalizations and outrageous simplification, societal structure was chieftain tribal, meaning that the leadership of the group was by a respected elder with the tacit approval of the majority of tribal members. These chieftains were not necessarily warriors, for the primary decisions of leadership were in coordinating hunting and communal activities as well as mediating in intratribal disputes. Chiefs did not hold an office in the political sense; instead they were valued for the practical knowledge and advice that they could dispense which could keep the tribe prosperous and safe. Achieving chieftain status was neither by election, power struggle, nor heredity. One simply and slowly “became” chief as tribal members developed trust in that man’s ability to show wisdom in making decisions. Religious duties were often guided by other specialists (“medicine men”, “shamans”), but these would rarely have any more or less say in tribal decisions than any other member.
There was no separation of the religious and the profane, and there was no concept of private ownership of land, whether by an individual nor by a tribe nor country. These values were so diametrically the opposite of those of the European settlers that it would lead again and again to misunderstandings and mistreatment.
Although each tribe would understand that its own members came from a common set of ancestors, there did also exist larger confederations of similar linguistically bound tribes. These “nations” rarely had any real cohesion besides limited alliances for a specific purpose, such as the defense against other non-affiliated tribes or nations, or in settling intertribal conflicts. Trade between all groups was common, and led to widely understood sign languages covering huge areas.
Warfare – The technological sophistication in pre-colonial America was similar to that of pre-colonial African nations, and as expected weapons development was roughly the same. But there were two key differences. The bow and arrow were nearly nonexistent in sub-Saharan Africa, while in the Americas its use was widespread. The bow was relatively weak, but after the introduction of the Spanish horse, the plains tribes’ warriors learned to accurately shoot while in full gallop. This delivery system meant that the effective range of the arrow could be greatly extended.
The more important difference was the lack of domestic metal production. The few cultures that produced copper in any quantity did not (with two minor exceptions) fabricate effective weapons with them, and so remained essentially in the Stone Age. By the early nineteenth century most tribes had embraced the weaponry and tools of the white settlers, incorporating steel and rifles to their traditional stone implements. But as they did not have access to the means of production for these machines, trade with the encroaching settlers was always necessary to repair and reload their firearms.
The spear was found in all areas, and after the introduction of the horse by Europeans it became the lance, the difference being that a spear is thrown but a lance is held during a charge from horseback. By far the most common weapon was the small ax and club, at first in stone and later in iron. The method of battle for the most part was based on the techniques of raiding, and in some areas this was mixed with elements of ritualized warfare. This would lead to the destruction of the Native American civilizations in less than 200 years of contact with the Europeans.
In North America, the pattern of colonial European advance, native response, and European follow-up was repeated over and over again in the rapid progression from east to west. As settlers encroached on favored lands, Indian tribes would respond the way they always had – a raid. An isolated group of the enemy would be attacked by a raiding party, some members would be taken captive, a house might be burned down, and on occasion a male enemy might be killed. To the natives, this was the civilized way to handle the dispute. It would normally have been enough to have the enemy either move on or, worst case, a reprisal raid could be expected. They never imagined that the retaliation would be a wave of soldiers intent on obliterating every individual in the offending tribe.
By the time the expansion reached the Great Plains, the settlers came across warriors who were mounted and well armed with rifles, but the pattern remained the same. Finally, by the late 1800’s, many of these tribes attempted direct confrontation with the army bent on their destruction. The US soldiers, trained in Western warfare, used the same tactics developed in European wars, while for the most part the native warriors continued with their traditional methods. Although many native chiefs would develop elaborate battlefield strategies, on the day of battle nothing could prevent the individual warriors from ignoring the plan and breaking ranks in order to “count coup”.
Counting coup was how a warrior would prove his bravery in battle. It was the act of running or riding up to an opponent and striking him, and then returning back to your comrades. Killing or even hurting the opponent was not necessary to count coup (in fact, killing was of much less value than striking in terms of building a warrior’s reputation within the tribe) and this corresponds to an ancient style of ritual warfare which provided honor to the combatants without devastating the population. Unfortunately, it proved to be an inadequate tactic when dealing with a modern army.
The US Army mounted cavalry quickly learned that the tribal warrior’s skill in fighting one-on-one was at par with his excellent horsemanship. Plains Indians in particular learned how to ride as soon as they could walk, and a warrior could fire rifle or arrow from full gallop with accuracy. Some tribes, most notably the Apache, discarded counting coup completely and attacked to kill, becoming superb guerrilla fighters. But even then the warrior’s fighting style was always intrinsically individualistic. And even when they were able to achieve victories, they were ultimately doomed to lose to an enemy that had unlimited resources and could attack their food supply and noncombatants with impunity.
Weapons available – Certainly the bow and arrow, which before the introduction of the horse was truly a longbow. The spear also made the transition to lance for the same reason. A small axe (tomahawk) and large knife. The tribes of the Eastern coast used a war club, as most of their fighting was in heavily wooded areas and on foot. Flintlock muskets were available to them from the earliest contact with Europeans, whereas out West and in the plains areas, the tribes went from bow and arrow to lever-action repeating rifle in one step.
Meso and Southern American Empires
Mayans, Aztecs, and Incas
It is grossly unfair to lump these three empires together, separated as they were by time and geography. But they are distinct from other native North American cultures, in that these all had centralized governments led by emperors considered to be divine with assistance from a well developed hereditary bureaucracy. Wealth to maintain power came both from agricultural production and tribute from both allied and conquered lesser kingdoms. Dominion was periodically reestablished by use of large scale raiding wars.
In studying them as warriors they show remarkable similarities as well. All three great empires used no metal weapons nor ever developed the wheel into a method of transportation. This is especially surprising for the Incas, as they were expert in all aspects of metal working, save that of iron.
Raiding wars within these cultures were driven by ritual. Only worthy warriors would engage in battle, and the object was to take live prisoners of as high rank as possible. The captives were not returned after payment of ransom, as a matter of fact they were not returned at all. We know from Aztec documentation that the captives were feted and honored by their captors for several days, even referred to as “son”, and the village would make a public show of mourning their soon-to-be deaths. The majority of the captives were sacrificed outright in a ceremony that theatrically created an idealized version of the submission and destruction of the enemy. Captive warriors of high rank would be subjected to a ritual of gladiatorial combat, tied to a central disk and given blunted clubs, fighting against heavily armored warriors using sharpened weapons. To die in such a manner was considered by both victor and victim to be highly honorable.
On the battlefield, set-piece battles would start with archers and slingers showering missiles into the enemy, containing the movement of the enemy to prevent encirclement. The elite warriors would fight in the center with spears or clubs meant to break a man’s leg or knock him unconscious so he could be taken away as a captive. The most feared weapon, used by both the Mayans and the Aztecs, was the macuahuitl, a wooden club lined on both edges with obsidian. Such a weapon combined the attributes of both battle ax and broadsword, and accounts from the Conquistadors describe warriors cleaving horses in two with a single stroke of this formidable sword/club. Unfortunately, no macuahuitl survives.
Use of a wooden shield strapped to the forearm was common. Only the victors would be allowed to keep the captives after the fight. Any captives taken by the losing side were immediately released. The destruction of an opposing tribe was never the intention of battle, although a great many warriors might die. Once a battle was won, the vanquished would return to their village or city, and the specifics of tribute payment would be worked out by emissaries. None of this prevented many battles from being bloody affairs.
It is very easy to ascribe the downfall of the Aztecs and Inca to the Spanish superiority of weapons, armor, and horses. In truth, the Spanish were even more assisted by the virulence of European bacteria, the treachery of local client kingdoms against their overlords, and the unwillingness of the warriors to simply overwhelm the Spanish with shear numbers or fight with the intent of killing. In the one battle in which the Aztecs did change their tactics and fought to kill, the Spaniards quickly lost and were nearly wiped out. If the Aztecs had fought for only one more day using the same methods, the later history of Mesoamerica might be completely different.
Weapons available – Aztec and Mayan – Spears with heads made of hard stone, especially obsidian, or wooden heads lined with obsidian. Macuahuitl, single or double-hand. Slings, bows and arrows. No metal weapons used for battle.
Incas – No true spear, but a long dart launched with the aid of a spear thrower. Stones thrown by hand. Wooden and composite maces. T-shaped stone axe-head lashed onto a wooden shaft, wielded much like a battle-ax or halberd.
Among the tropical forest tribes outside of the influence of empires, simple spears, usually thrown, and sharpened stone club/daggers. Also what the Spanish would term the macana, a double-edged, single handed hardwood club found from the Caribbean to the Amazon headwaters. The blowgun, common among Amazon River basin tribes, could shoot out a poison-tipped dart with accuracy to about 30 to 60 feet, but these were hunting instruments, not used in warfare. The amount of poison on the dart would be enough to kill a bird or small monkey, but hardly sufficient to slow down a human.
Polynesia
The varied cultures of the South Pacific islands were for the most part tribal/chieftain with some attaining the complexity of hereditary kingship. Warfare was generally raiding or cyclical retaliation and for some developed into ritual as the primary purpose. What they all had in common was a near absence of metal. With bone, stone, and hardwood being the only hard materials available, weapons were almost universally spears, knives and clubs.
By the 1500’s invasions from India brought metal to most of the South Sea islands, so traditional forms were maintained but with steel blades. Many are still worn by non-governmental fighters, who often will wear a traditional knife tucked into their sash or belt while carrying an AK-47.
Possibly because of the dense vegetation growth in most of the Pacific Islands, warfare involved fewer participants than let’s say in Southern Africa, where spears could be thrown at just in-range distance between what was in essence the entire assembled male population. Instead, battles for Polynesians were made up of individual combat with held spears and sharpened war clubs. The intent was to kill, not capture.
In the Hawaiian archipelago there existed a complex social/political structure based on hereditary class divisions. Beneath the king (mo‘i) and his immediate advisors were the lords (ali‘i). All below this level were required to bow or even prostrate themselves in the presence of the ali’i, and not even allow their shadows to land on an ali’i. Ali’i were attended by servants at all times. Beneath them were the kahuna, the highly skilled craftsmen and priests, and below them in turn were the vast majority of people, the common workers (maka‘ainana). A very small group of outcasts also existed, the kauwa. All positions were determined by heredity.
Taxes were paid yearly, and the ali’i or the mo’i could call everyone to fight in wars. Just as in the rest of Polynesia, battles were close-in and brutal, although Hawaiians did developed a sling for rock throwing. The common weapons were the stone club, axe, spear, and dagger, some lined with shark’s teeth, just as in the rest of the South Sea islands. The Hawaiians did have one unique weapon, however: a weight tied to a length of rope, thrown at an opponent’s legs in order to trip them.
In order to maintain battle readiness, all members of society were encouraged to practice and compete in a wide variety of sports that would have been commonly seen at the ancient or modern Olympics, including wrestling, javelin toss, sprinting, and boxing. Many also practiced an indigenous martial arts system known as lua, mostly taught in private to select warriors. From all of this and from local oral history we can deduce that Hawaiian warfare combined a brief but effective initial use of thrown projectiles that supported primarily close-in, brutal, hand-to-hand fighting.
Asia
Ancient India
The Asian subcontinent has had an amazing history of repeated invasions and a staggering array of weapons development – most of which I’m going to ignore due to the practical limitations of this book.
I will mention that due to the waves of invaders that periodically swept in from both Persia and from the Asian steppes, India was exposed to every type of weapon and fighting style that existed in the rest of the world. Each new weapon was incorporated into the local fighting traditions, and then improved upon. And once the spread of Buddhism moved northward, the unarmed and sword fighting styles of India traveled along with it. Thus the development of karate, judo, bushido, kung-fu, kendo tae-kwon-do; in a word all Asian fighting styles had their genesis in India.
Traditional Hindu society has, since possibly 2000 BC, been divided into four classes or castes:
Brahmins – priests and religious teachers
Ksatriyas – kings, warriors, aristocrats
Vaisyas – merchants and professional trades
Sudras – laborers, servants, field workers
As such, it was only among the Ksatriyas who trained for and fought in the innumerable wars and conflicts of the subcontinent. In 1463, a new monotheistic religion – Sihkism – was created in the Punjab. Sihks broke completely with the past, denouncing the caste system as immoral.
As soon as the sword was introduced into any area of India, it became the primary weapon of battle from that point forward. The earliest sword (seen from at least 100 AD) was the straight-edged two handed broadsword, later joined by a short curved sword with a cutting edge on the inside curve somewhat like the kukri, around 400 AD. Except for the spear, no other weapons are seen until contact is made with invading Persian and Mongol armies in the late thirteenth century. By the 500’s, a huge variety of weapons were absorbed and made Indian. Interestingly, the swords, whether straight or curved, were always fought as exclusively cutting weapons, thrusting being restricted to daggers and spears. Ksatriya took great pride in their sword training that emphasized cutting and evading, rarely using the sword to block. As such, the blade could be made thinner and sharper than European counterparts.
Weapons available –
There are precious few opportunities for American actors to work with a show using a traditional Indian setting, but on rare occasions a Shakespeare company will perform a “Bollywood” Romeo and Juliet. So on the off-chance that you might be involved in such a production, here are some of the weapons you might encounter:
Swords and daggers – no thin-bladed dueling rapiers, but a wide range of straight and curved swords of war. Most were used in single hand mode, often in conjunction with a shield or buckler. A peculiar variant from one Hindi princedom was the pata [gauntlet-sword], something like a very long punch-dagger [the katar, also from India]. The pata, although straight edged and seemingly perfect for thrusting, was used as a full arm swinging cutting weapon, especially effective from horseback.
The Talwar is the most popular sword of India, with a curved blade of Persia on a distinctively shaped small grip (shown here without the blade). Curved blades came into widespread use throughout India during the sixteenth century. Many Americans are confused by the scabbards of Indian swords, which are seen with either two rings or one. The two ring styles are meant to hang from a belt in European fashion, and are generally for mounted cavalry. The single ring scabbard is meant to be tucked into a waist fabric sash, the single ring fastened onto a hidden hook for security. Daggers, with exception of the katar, seem to be directly copied from Persian styles.
Spears/maces/axes – Anything found in medieval Europe was also found in India, but the construction tended to be much lighter. Since they generally used less wood and more steel for the shafts, they also tended to be more durable. Maces often had sword hilts for hand protection, something no European ever thought of. (A creative theatrical production might even throw in an ankus, the elephant hook used by the mahout. These are often included in British compendiums of Indian weapons, although there is no evidence that they were ever used that way.)
Quoits – Specifically a Sihk weapon, these flat rings of steel had razor-sharp edges and were thrown like Frisbees. Although the iconography seems to shows the quoits being spun on the index finger before being thrown, such a launch would provide very little distance. There is no indication that they were especially effective as battlefield weapons.
Siam (Thailand)
It is difficult to find much information on true Siamese weapons. Most of the pieces picked up by British travelers during the 19th century were produced specifically for what was then the “tourist trade”, and Western museums were not very diligent in researching the provenance of the items they acquired. In addition, modern Thai practitioners of Muay Thai (Thai kick-boxing) enjoy trying to fabricate a rich sword history in their ancient and regal past, where none really seems to have existed. That all males were expected to join in battle was certainly true, but Siam did not have a standing army, and proper swords were expensive and rare. Martial arts training was extensive, both unarmed and with quarterstaff and short bamboo “swords”, but the metal weapons themselves were limited in number and in style.
The weapons of Siam were for the most part directly borrowed from the Indian subcontinent, but as they did not have much access to quality iron swords were usually limited in quantity. The very high humidity also meant that rust was a constant problem. Steel weapons simply did not last as long as they did in India. Spears were the most important weapon, as spear heads can be made very thick and do not need to be tempered, so were always the first choice for practical weapons that would survive for many years.
Straight-edged short swords could also be made with thick blades, thus getting around some of the rust, and tempering weakness of longer Indian swords. Blades were usually straight, or no more than slightly curved, and the overall sword was about two feet long. Hilts were small, usually no more than 4 to 6 inches across or just a simple disk of also 4 “ in diameter.
One interesting note is that the Siamese did produce a curved sword of about three feet in length. Due to poor materials and bad tempering skills, the swords were quite inferior in warfare. Very weak and prone to sudden bending and breaking in battle, the form of the sword still showed excellent design attributes. It was later adopted by the Japanese and became the samurai katana, perhaps the finest sword ever produced.
China
Once again, a hugely important region historically and politically that will be getting painfully short shrift here. Although the unbroken written history of China goes back to 2000 BC (and distinct and complex civilizations are in evidence all the way back to 7000 BC), we are merely going to show the historical development of weaponry up to the Qing Dynasty at the turn of the century.
1700 BC – bows and arrows, spears, short knives, and the ge, a short spiked dagger blade mounted at right angles to a staff. The weapon heads were jade and other hard minerals, bronze coming later in the period.
800 BC – exposure to nomadic raiding trips of the Central steppe (Middle Eastern) raiding tribes (attacking with chariots). Therefore Chinese tribes went immediately from foot warriors using short utilitarian bronze knives (but of high quality) to horsemanship and the bronze sword. Sword lengths were still quite short, about 14 to 18 inches long, double-edged and slightly leaf shaped or simply straight edged. Therefore, the sword could not have been used while the fighter was mounted. Instead, the horse was used to move the warrior quickly into the field of battle, at which point he would dismount to fight. Chariots, too, were used primarily for quick transport, not as a fighting platform.
By 300 BC, the sword length had increased to over three feet in length. Certainly by this time the sword was used by both mounted cavalry and infantry, for the size of the standing army had increased to allow for differentiation of duties. Unlike Western swords of the same period, these full length singlehand bronze swords – jian – were of excellent quality. Although the Chinese by this time were fully capable of producing iron, they felt no need to do so.
200 BC – unification of China – a sudden jump from bronze to steel, by-passing iron, in sword making. Sword blades now could be made just as long, but lighter and stronger than bronze. In response to repeated nomadic invasions, the army was now composed of diverse specialized units. Foot soldiers were used primarily for defense. The heavy infantry was used for close fighting (using primarily the ge) and masses of light infantry firing crossbows or bow and arrow, but in primarily a defensive role. The primary threat (and final defeat) was from nomadic cavalry (using composite bow, lance, and sword) always fighting while mounted. As such, heavy cavalry (armed with ge, swords), light cavalry (with sword and crossbow) became the primary offensive arms. For both the light infantry and light cavalry, crossbows were preferred over simple bows, as they had a longer range than did the simple bows of the invaders. Chariots continued to be used, and were expanded from their role of mere delivery vehicles to a variety of uses, including mobile fighting platforms.
500 AD – introduction of curved sword from Turkmenistan. From then on it – called the dao – is used along with the straight sword.
618 to 907 AD – Tang Dynasty – The dao becomes standard for cavalry, jian for infantry. Tang dynasty is at a golden age – the height of empire in which Chinese weaponry, language, written characters, culture, religion spread out rather than continue to borrow from others. Here is also where improvements in steel manufacturing enabled the production of very high quality weapons. Periodic conscription of soldiers for a three year tour of duty is discontinued in favor of a professional permanent force for the standing army. A turn as well away from feudalism to a centralized Confucian bureaucracy. From this point forward, all of those that would conquer China would leave intact the massive bureaucracy necessary to run it, and in the process adopt the ways and culture of classical China of the Tang.
908 to 1644 AD. While this period includes the Ming Dynasty, for our purposes I only will note that the sword becomes relegated to a ceremonial position, and became rarely used in battle, supplanted by the halberd. Most serious fighting strategy revolved around the lance and bow and arrow. To take better use of the halberd and pike bearing heavy infantry, the battlefield formation known as the phalanx was used. The sword in China begins its long descent to a weapon of romance and legend.
1368 to 1911 AD – Qing Dynasty, although we know it better as the period of Manchu rule. These Mongolian invaders did impose some elements of Manchurian dress and tradition (especially the distinctive pigtail) on China, although after a time they too adopted traditional Chinese language and culture, and the same military format. The standard sword was a rather short, straight edged sword, much like the archers sword of medieval Europe – not considered during military planning, but still issued as a weapon of last resort. But while the sword was rarely used in combat, there was a large production of them for export as well as non-military purchase within the country. These swords differed substantially from the swords of earlier eras in that they tended to be more fanciful and of poorer quality. As they were untested in battle it didn’t matter much, but the styles still survive in what around the world are now considered traditional Chinese weapons. Especially distinctive are the butterfly knives, paired swords, exaggerated dao shapes and fanciful halberd shapes. These forms have become popular among modern practitioners of Chinese martial arts. Although not used by the standing army, they do have an important role in one moment in history – The Boxer Rebellion.
In 1900, China was on the verge of being completely dominated by foreign powers. A series of attacks against Europeans living in China by peasants escalated into a full anti-imperialist rebellion, aided by the tacit approval of the Empress and by the direct military support of the Chinese Army. The rebels called themselves the “Fists of Righteous and Harmonious Society Movement”, which the English simplified to “Boxers”. Boxers believed in using only traditional weapons, especially spears and halberds, although they certainly did nothing to dissuade the Chinese army from using rifles and artillery against the “foreign devils”. While the rebellion lasted nearly two years, it only lasted that long because resupplying the colonial troops proved difficult. Once in place, the combined foreign powers put down the Boxer rebellion rather easily.
At the end of the rebellion, the Qing empress had lost any real power. Dissatisfaction against the minority rule of the Manchu led to the creation of the Republic of China. Militarily, all vestiges of traditional weapons disappeared as the warlords in command of each warring faction procured the latest weaponry of the period.
Japan
While it is fairly common for many Shakespeare plays to be set in a generic “Medieval Japan”, it is important to know that the civilization developed slowly.
We forget (and many modern Japanese choose to ignore) that the people we think of as culturally and distinct Japanese were not the original inhabitants of the islands. During the Kofun Period (aprox 300-700 AD) and Nara Period (aprox 700-794) various clans that had migrated from the Korean peninsula and from the Chinese mainland slowly grew in power. These warlike chieftain-led clans brought with them the cultural influences of China, along with iron swords, armor, and war horses. They began in the southern islands and moved slowly northward, and in doing so subjugating or eliminating the aboriginal inhabitants, the Ainu. By the Nara period, a common overlord was recognized as emperor. The swords were single edged and straight, with simple wooden or bone handles and blade lengths of anywhere from 12 to 30 inches.
The Heian Period (794-1184) saw the rise of the powerful monasteries and development of the locally produced artifacts. Although still influenced by China, life in court, literature, art, and fashion began to become distinctly Japanese. Although ancient tribes still continued to exist as they always had, fishing, growing rice, and occasionally raiding each other under small-time warlords, class divisions began to harden. Slowly, the military guards and mounted warlords became what would be known as the samurai, or aristocracy. The warrior-priests used both swords and polearms, and generally had better martial training than did the common warrior, who had access to nothing more sophisticated than spears and farm implements. While most wealthy warlords might have a straight-edged Chinese sword, many were switching to the local curved sword. The transition from straight to curved took place slowly, beginning at first with a straight blade with merely a sudden curve at the hilt. The sword during this period seems to have been used only by the mounted warlord, therefore worn as a tachi, with the blade edge down. In this position, the sword is less likely to fall out of a scabbard while the warrior is galloping across a field. Other auxiliary swords and daggers might also be worn, tucked into the obi, or waist belt. One dagger in particular was the metezashi, worn on the right side with edge leading and the handle pointing straight up. It was grasped by right hand in an underhand grip, so that the blade could rise up in one motion to cut a combatant’s throat or slice up underneath the side of his armor.
But far more important militarily than the sword was the bow, for this was the weapon that, fired from horseback, could do the most damage to opponents before closing with the sword. What battlefield strategy there was was still based loosely on early Chinese models, but centuries of fighting only other warlords meant that most battles were massed episodes of largely single combat. It also included the Chinese practice of often deciding victory by counting the decapitated heads of combatants. It must be noted that the Japanese gave this custom their own twist. A special sword, shorter than the tachi, was used for the job of beheading the dead. Each warrior took great care that his own hair and skin be carefully tended and perfumed so as to present a worthy head if so taken in battle.
Kamakura Period (1185-1331) Just as in Europe, feudalism replaced tribalism. A powerful central commanding emperor used his more powerful warriors as tax collectors, and these same warriors soon carved up the islands forming their own fiefdoms. The construction of swords dramatically improved, finally achieving the graceful even curve of the katana. It is here that the permanent warrior class is effectively cemented into society, and along with it the nascent warrior code. The term “bushido” means “way of the warrior”, but also translates from an earlier form of Japanese to “way of the horse and bow”.
The country enjoyed relatively peaceful times internally. Samurai were legally required to practice martial arts, and laws were passed removing the right of any but samurai to wear the tachi, although other swords were still permissible. Due to the strength of a strong central shogun, there was a certain internal stability that would have limited further military advances. So it was an exterior threat that changed martial practice. Although the two great Mongol invasions (in 1274 and 1281) were both successfully repulsed, the success was due more to timely storms rather than excellent strategy. Indeed, the Japanese saw for the first time such innovations as regiments drilled in battle formations, encirclements, firing volley of arrows from infantry bowmen rather than on horseback. The samurai realized that their accustomed way of approaching battle, with shouts and challenges followed by a headlong rush on horseback into what was really a mass of single combat, was obsolete. The Japanese had fought as brave warriors: the Mongols fought as a disciplined army.
By the end of the period, Japanese warfare moved away from light raiding tactics utilizing what was primarily light cavalry. Instead, the samurai transformed themselves into a mix of heavy infantry and heavy cavalry, using spears and poleweapons in organized formations. The bow was reduced to a subsidiary role, and the sword was now the primary weapon for combat, but on ground, not from horseback. As such, the sword is worn edge up, allowing for an easy draw.
Muromachi Period (1332-1573) A period of almost unending battles between the various feudal lords. Also the time of the finest sword blade manufacture and the full development of every variety of polearm. Primary weapon for the mounted samurai remained the spear, while fighting on the ground was best performed while wielding a new sword – the seoi tachi. With a blade length of 40 inches or more, it was often slung on the back until drawn for battle. The scabbard was most often disposable, made of cheap bamboo, straw, or even simply paper.
It is also during this period that the straight sword disappears completely in favor of the curved blade. During this period the number of warriors increases, but obviously the land cannot sustain pasturage for a limitless number of horses. As the number of warriors increases, but the number of horses stays the same, fighting on foot becomes more common, even for the highly placed samurai. Th use of the bow and arrow and the spear diminishes as the sword increases in estimation. The nobility completely embrace the katana as the ultimate weapon of war.
Peasants were the vast majority of the foot soldiers, using the polearms in order to take a battlefield or cut down approaching cavalry. Although their function was critical to military success, during the first half of this period they were still expected to do agricultural work when not engaged in battle. Known as Ashigaru, these were conscripts armed with a long spear as the primary weapon, and a mass-produced sword (quite inferior compared to the katana and tachi of the samurai) as a close-in weapon. Ashigaru had limited training, and were specifically told not to attempt the moves they might observe from the samurai, but to sweep at the legs of the enemy.
Life for the samurai became more dangerous. Intrigue and direct attacks were a constant threat. The wearing of two swords, the full length katana and the shorter wakizashi, became fashionable to wear when out of doors, but it was the wakizashi that became the constant companion during every hour of the day. The wakizashi was worn when eating, at meditation, when in private with his family, and was even by his side when bathing or sleeping.
This was also the time when many of the practices and arts associated with the study of Zen had their inception. The tea ceremony, Noh theatre, flower arranging, landscape gardening, sumi-e painting, swordsmanship – all were practiced not with the intent of the activity itself, but to achieve spiritual enlightenment. The very end of this time also marks the first contact with Europeans (Portuguese and Spaniards)
Momoyama Period (1574-1602) The very end of the Age of the Warring Land also brought about the highest development of all of the arts, as the country became unified under Oda Nobuaga. Weapons in this period are expected to be perfect – strong, flexible, light, and beautiful. The prior Portuguese contact also led to musket development – revolutionizing warfare. At the end of this period, ashigaru (foot soldiers) were recognized as being of samurai status rather than merely peasants. In 1588 the shogun (overlord) enacted the first of two ordinances that were to have a huge influence on the definition of a samurai. The first was the ‘Sword Hunt’, by which all weapons were confiscated from the peasantry and placed in the hands of the daimyô (warlords) and their increasingly professional armies. The Separation Edict, which followed in 1591, completed the process. The peasants had been disarmed, and there was now to be a total separation between the military function and the agricultural function on pain of death or banishment. Thus ended the possibility of peasants joining an army to rise in social rank, and firmly established the ashigaru as permanent standing armies.
Tokugawa Period (1603-1867) Also known as the Edo Period. A long period of stability both politically and socially, a time almost without war. The class system became firmly entrenched and rigid. As usual, the warriors were at the highest level. But unlike other societies, the peasants were at the next highest rank, as it was recognized that they produced the food, therefore the wealth, on which all of the others depended. Below them were the artisans, who created things of value and beauty but only from the raw materials that others had produced. Lowest in rank and virtually disdained by all were the merchants, who were thought to be necessary in order to move products around the country, but produced nothing of value themselves.
Ironically, it was the merchants who benefited most from the strict separation, at least materially. The towns that grew near the protection of fortified castles slowly gained the most wealth, and the merchants had little competition and could operate in greater safety. Several became extremely wealthy by providing loans to samurai families.
Politically, the country was under strict totalitarian Shogun control. This was accomplished by the complete isolation of the islands from Westerners, and the near hostage situation of the various daimyôs’ families, as well as the emperor himself, residing at Edo, the Emperor’s capital city (later known as Tokyo). In what is called the Alternate Attendance System, every one of the 264 daimyô had to live every other year in Edo, and his principle wife and his first born son had to reside there permanently. This ushered in a number of momentous changes in Japan. First, it quickly pacified the previously contentious samurai class. Secondly, it also transferred huge amounts of wealth to the capitol city. Lastly, and unexpectedly, it meant that by the 18th century, every daimyô had been born and raised in Edo, felt himself to be a native of that city, and began to look with disdain at those denizens of the far flung castles.
With all of these disruptions and the slow loss of true power, it was natural that most of the country began turning ever towards nostalgia and romanticizing of samurai traditions. The Japanese literature for the samurai composed “Arthurian/fairy tale” views of medieval warriors, while their actual battlefield skills began to diminish. Most everything that Westerners recognize as being “samurai” is from this period. Sadly, most modern Japanese share the same view. The iconography of the sword (the way of the sword as being identical with bushido, the way of the warrior) springs from this era. It is the time of the great swordsmen and schools of swordplay. It also is the time of many samurai being displaced, in effect “fired” from their employment under the daimyô as financial resources shift from maintaining battle readiness at their family castles to maintaining the social position of their families at Edo. Large numbers of these former warriors became ronin, masterless samurai. But whereas in the past they could simply be hired by other daimyô, these ronin had few opportunities for gainful employment, and many became thieves. The warriors in the film The Seven Samurai are all ronin, and it is possible to view the thief in Roshamon as being one as well.
Meiji Restoration (1868-1945). A return to a centralized monarchy, away from the power of the Shogun. This was in large measure a direct response to foreign contact, specifically the threat of American domination. It also ushered in intense modernization and industrialization in a successful attempt to leap into the European twentieth century. By the turn of the century Japan was recognized as one of a dozen world powers. This was aided by the disarming of the samurai, and then the complete dismantling of the feudal system. The samurai attitudes and culture remained strong, and were especially promoted within the military, which in itself was no small feat considering that the modern military required conscripting large numbers of soldiers from the peasant and merchant class. Liberalism and individualism grew along with the economy.
Post-War Japan (1945 – present). An imposed shift to a constitutional and democratic republic, followed by a rapid development as an economic and technological powerhouse. Samurai and bushido fade to legend and fable.
Ok, that was the history lesson.
Fashion/Manners – The code of Bushido is described as being of “willingness”. Generally it means a willingness to serve others in a way appropriate to one’s station as a warrior. But bushido also was supposed to provide a template of actions off of the battlefield and even in private. A budo [warrior] was to be unflinchingly stoic in the face of pain or danger, demonstrate an unswerving loyalty to his superior, and of course to be expert in all matters military. By the time of the Momoyama Period, budo were also supposed to have not merely an appreciation of the arts, but also demonstrate a proficiency in at least some art forms [painting, music] and be fully versed in all cultural ceremonies and etiquette. Indeed, making a mistake in a social activity such as the service of tea was considered not just ignorant but deliberately insulting.
Westerners are intrigued by one aspect in particular of bushido that we call “harry carry”. What we are mispronouncing is hara kiri, which specifically means belly cutting, and is only one aspect of seppuku – the act of “noble” suicide by one’s own hand. Seppuku did not necessarily have to lead to death, although the performer of the act should have had no expectation of surviving. Seppuku was any extremely admirable deed of bravery from a samurai who knew he was defeated, disgraced, or mortally wounded. It meant that he could end his days with his transgressions wiped away and with his reputation not merely intact but actually enhanced. The cutting of the abdomen which is hara kiri was the most extreme form, and was thought to release the samurai’s spirit in the most dramatic fashion possible. It was an extremely painful and unpleasant way to die, and sometimes the samurai who was performing the act asked a loyal comrade to cut off his head at the moment of agony. Unspoken but understood was that the attendant was also expected to do the same in case the samurai’s nerve should falter, preventing a disgrace to the samurai’s entire family.
Seppuku and hara kiri are not to be confused with the suicide missions of the kamikaze dive-bombers during WWII. Those human bombs thought that they were contributing to victory rather than atoning for failure.
Seiza
The kneeling/sitting position of rest (seiza) is difficult for Western adults to do if not accustomed to it from years of practice, but there are no shortcuts in performing it. From standing, first the left knee goes to the ground, then the right. The order is important, for it keeps the bottom of the scabbard from awkwardly driving forward and bouncing on the ground. Once on your knees, point the toes so that the tops of the feet are flat against the floor as you lower the buttocks onto your heels. The big toes may touch, but they should not cross one over the other. The head and torso should be erect, shoulders relaxed with the hands on the thighs. For many adult Westerners, the legs will fall asleep after only a few minutes in this position.
When bowing in seiza, the right hand reaches out to the ground first, then the left, forming a slight triangle. The head goes as far down towards the floor as is possible without raising the buttocks off of the feet. Better to perform a shallow bow than an ungainly one. After the bow, the left hand is removed first, followed by the right. To rise up from seiza, the right leg comes up first, followed by the left, with the torso staying straight as you stand.
In formal court situations, samurai were not allowed to stand in the presence of the emperor (not out of respect, but because it’s difficult to assassinate the emperor from seiza). Once the emperor entered a room, they had to know how to “walk” while never rising up from seiza if they needed to approach. Known as shikkô aruki, it is great exercise, so give it a try. While still kneeling, bring one knee up and put the foot down in front of you, while simultaneously turning the other knee out to the side, forming a stable three-point base. To step forward, roll over the ball of the lead foot until the knee comes down to the floor. Then turn the knee quickly off to the side while the trailing knee rises up and forward and the next foot is placed down in front. Quickly tuck the trailing heel forward underneath the buttocks. You get the idea: swing out, step forward, swing out, step forward, all the while trying to maintain a solid triangle stance from which you can rise at any moment to defend yourself. When perfected, the torso moves gracefully across the floor without bobbing.
General standing and movement. It is often written in fencing guides of the period that movement while fighting must be the same as when walking, that there should be no difference between fighting movement and everyday movement. The idea here is that just as one should always be prepared for attack, not just on a battlefield or when facing a known opponent, but in every moment of the day or night. And if one trains with one stance yet lives with another, one is always unprepared..
While this may be true, it is also true that the constant and punishing training for these military men meant that the body changed in response to these exercises. With time, the legs naturally develop a slight turn out at the knees. The daily stance and walk of the warrior often show one of two distinguishing features: either the legs stay further apart than shoulder distance, or by necessity they become slightly bow legged, the outside edges of the feet digging into the ground. Naturally, you don’t want your actors to turn their legs and feet this way for performance, but it is good to have them emulate some of the weight and solidity one sees in the Japanese prints of the period.
Civilian Conflict – It was expected that a duel between two of the samurai class would be a fight using the katana (though in reality most disputes were settled by hired assassins). There was no protocol for dueling beyond the agreement of time and place, and usually a day was given between challenge and confrontation. This allowed for either man to simply not show up at the appointed time, with loss of face but saving of life.
The following is perhaps the favorite story concerning Japan’s most famous swordmaster, Myamoto Musashi, author of the Book of Five Rings. He declared that he was undefeated in over fifty combats. Musashi did not tell this tale – but it later became part of his legend.
Musashi was challenged by a very boastful local expert. An agreement was made to meet in the morning on a sandy shoal at a beach nearby. The expert arrived on time, but Musashi was nowhere to be found. Hours passed by until finally a very disheveled Musashi approached without his sword and obviously hung-over. Some mention was made by observers that perhaps the fight should be postponed to another day, but Musashi insisted that he was able to fight and the only reason to postpone would be the cowardice of his challenger. His challenger immediately drew his katana and threw the scabbard into the ocean, yelling out, “From this spot I shall not leave without his blood on my sword!” Musashi turned to the crowd and, just loud enough for his opponent to hear, muttered, ”He must not think much of his chances today if he throws away a perfectly good scabbard.”
But Musashi had no sword. He staggered to a small fishing boat anchored on the beach, pulled out a short oar made of pine, and with his knife rough-shaped it until he had a reasonable approximation of a katana-length club. The crowd became silent as the two men approached each other. When they were less than two sword lengths away, both men stood as still as statues.
For what seemed an eternity the two men stood with their weapons pointing at each others’ faces, the only sound being the steady fall of each gentle wave collapsing on the sand. Both men seemed to be utterly relaxed, and yet intensely focused. Suddenly, with a fury that shook the air, both men leaped at each other as they swung their weapons down, Musashi slightly slower than his opponent, and in almost the same instant both men jumped back to their ready stance.
The onlookers at first could not understand what they saw, if indeed that they actually saw anything at all, so suddenly had the moment exploded and then gone back to stillness. Then a slight wind revealed that Musashi’s headband had been neatly sliced by the downstroke of his opponent, and as the headband fell to the ground a single cut on his forehead began to bleed. Then is when his opponent fell to the ground, fatally wounded from a blow to the head. Musashi had expertly timed his leap so that his opponent’s sword would be a hair’s width away from killing him, and in that moment that the sword passed his face he would be close enough to deliver a death blow to his challenger’s head.
Again, Musashi never told this story himself, but did admit to having used an oar in a fight at least once. Many versions of the tale abound, and the details seem to cover every imaginative conceit. But if the story is apocryphal, it does illustrate some important truths about the nature of single combat in this period, namely winning with whatever weapon was at hand, not allowing emotion to rule the movements of the fight, waiting for the single perfect moment for a decisive all-or-nothing attack, and the fact that most fights were over in the space of one or two moves.
[I never quite understood how much energy could be delivered from a standing start until I had the opportunity to attend a seminar in traditional Japanese swordplay conducted by Masayuki Shimabukuro Hanshi, 8th dan (level) iaido master. Iaido is taught and practiced using only sharpened blades, and we dutifully practiced for two days the various draws and attacks at a slow and deliberate pace. Finally, he demonstrated what a simple attack would look like at regular speed. He squared off against a 3rd dan guest instructor, and both were completely relaxed. When the guest instructor began to inhale, Shimabukuro leapt forward, his entire body moving in like a freight train, the sword crashing down to a centimeter above the other’s forehead. The room reverberated from the sound of his shout, which was closer to the compressed roar of a lion than a human sound. So sudden and powerful was the attack that the guest instructor had no time to even raise his weapon, and the color drained from his face when he realized how easily this grand master could take someone’s life at will.]
To coolly face death without fear or concern over defeat required an incredible self-discipline and control over emotions, and the Japanese form of Buddhism known as Zen perfectly fit those requirements. While Shinto, the native religion based on deity and ancestor worship and respect, remained popular, Zen gave its practitioners a practical tool in preparing the mental toughness and self control necessary to not be overwhelmed by external events. Both religions [and a few others] coexisted in Japan. Even though several governments tried to separate and regulate the different sects, it is interesting that the vast majority of Japanese today consider themselves Buddhist but also believe in and practice at least some level of Shinto.
When not a duel, a fight of anger between two civilians of any status might of course be fought with any found object, edged weapon, or even unarmed. As all of the samurai class were expected to be expert in the use of all weapons, we would expect that they would have fought with a high degree of skill. If the lower classes had any martial arts training, they still would not have had the luxury of being able to devote several hours to daily practice. Having said that, it is worthy of note that unarmed fight training among the peasant class was fairly common in at least the area of Okinawa, said training that we would later recognize as karate.
Modern karate was developed during the twentieth century and the word translates as “open hand”. But before then the term, although pronounced the same, was originally written with different ideograms, and meant “Chinese hands”, reflecting the origin of the art. The original unarmed fighting style made no distinction between punching and kicking (karate) throwing and grappling (judo) or traps and releases (aikido). All were taught according to the ability of the instructor, and there was no hesitation to use a weapon if one was handy. The idea of learning unarmed fighting skills so as to be more “gentle” or nonlethal is a peculiarly Western concept. These skills were taught in Japan in order to be able to quickly kill an opponent and avoid being killed.
Warfare – It is interesting to note how Japanese warfare differed from the feudal wars of Europe. Although both were led by a mounted warrior-class nobility who far exceeded the average foot soldier in training and skill, there were also key differences. European knights fought almost exclusively as heavy cavalry, the primary weapon being the couched lance driven at full gallop. They then closed with the sword, although still while on horseback. Samurai used arrows, not lances, from horseback and so first could act as a light cavalry before switching to heavy cavalry tactics with the sword. And although their European counterparts fought dismounted only reluctantly, samurai felt no disgrace in taking to the field on foot with a sword or pike. They were much more disciplined than were knights, and therefore would easily shift their fighting styles to accommodate the orders of their leaders.
Until the end of the Muromachi period, common warriors were generally issued the naginata, a two foot sword blade mounted on a long wooden shaft, creating an effective eight foot polearm. Such a weapon could be held and swung with little training, and yet still could be used against both the massed foot soldiers and the mounted samurai. Warfare centered on being able to position the entire battle formation to best advantage, and then close in and allow each warrior to fight to the best of his ability. Prisoners were rarely taken for ransom, although sometimes were taken for prisoner exchange of high ranking family members. Head hunting on the battlefield was practiced through most of Japanese history until about the mid 1600’s. Unlike China, only the opposing general and senior military staff, especially if members of the daimyô family, were singled out for this treatment. This was done to provide irrefutable proof that the enemy had been defeated. [This makes an interesting parallel with the “Highlander” movies and even with “Macbeth” – that the enemy is not dead until head is removed.]
The changes that came in the Momoyama period were dramatic. First was the decision to create a permanent lower level warrior class in order to remove all weapons from the hands of the peasantry. Very quickly, daimyôs were able to create specialized divisions within their standing armies, specially trained in the skills necessary to conduct complex battlefield tactics. Field combat changed from individual actions to group (volley) combat and maintaining tight formations.
The Meiji Restoration not only brought down the Shogunate but also ushered in Japan’s entry as a modern military power. In an astoundingly short period of time, they created a military force the equal of any in Europe, in weaponry, tactics, and organization. Continuing to the present day, the military has remained modern, and decidedly Western, in every aspect.
© 2009 Richard Pallaziol, Weapons of Choice ™- all rights reserved