Time Frame – approx 400 BC to 331 AD
Politics/Economics – Even during the height of Caesarian power, Rome maintained a working senate, with all the attendant infighting and politicizing and (usually) all of the freedoms granted under a strong respect for the rule of law. Although the later emperors ruled without the consent of the senate, they rarely interfered with the daily organization of Rome. In the earlier period, all citizens were expected to participate in politics, art, military service, and a lively social life, most of which continued until Rome’s eventual fall. Citizenship was not universal, although compared to other societies was widespread and commanded several liberties and rights. The relative average income was sufficiently large that even those of modest means could afford at least one slave. The strength of the economy was based on conquest and slavery, and although certainly not unique to Rome, Rome was uniquely successful at it. People who could not be conquered were still valued as trading partners. Indeed, in some cases maintaining the independence of a rich net-importer of Roman goods was of greater value to the empire than having to provide for the infrastructure of a vassal state. Large scale public works, especially for entertainment, distribution of goods and sanitation, made Rome and its satellites the most livable of cities prior to the 20th century.
Romans held the view that every problem had a technical solution, and that Rome was unconquerable in battle. Its power was derived from the ever increasing accumulation and consumption of foreign goods, and also depended on foreign mercenaries to maintain its own security. Ironically it was those two attributes that also led to its collapse. Change the last example to using foreign companies to provide for the majority of our purchased goods, and the parallels to 20th century USA should give us pause.
Fashion/Manners – Power is the theme for this period, and it was aggressively and purposefully emphasized, from the architecture to the draping of the toga. As the upper and middle class had servants, a great deal of time could be dedicated to leisure and civic pursuits. The social designations were not absolute, and even foreign slaves could become full citizens under the right conditions.
The toga was the symbol of dignity and citizenship and was worn for public occasions. For daily wear or travel, the simple tunic under a cloak was more common. In stance and movement, the bearing of an athletic warrior was emulated by men and women alike.
Much is made of the debauchery of the Romans, but we must keep in mind that the orgiastic excesses were limited for the most part to the higher levels of Roman society, what we would consider the leisure class, and even then occurred rarely and in the later period of the Empire. We also have an exaggerated view of the level of wine consumed. Contemporary accounts do relate large volumes being consumed, but the wine served was heavily diluted and probably had only a 2 or 3% alcohol level (about half of what is found in modern beer). Drinking undiluted wine was nearly unheard of, and drinking to the point of becoming inebriated was a major societal taboo, unacceptable in any social setting.
Civilian Conflict – The sword was unknown as a civilian weapon, so violent disputes were settled by knife and fist, but again, the knife was rarely worn except by soldiers. Interestingly, although the entertainment of the Romans was often bloodthirsty and barbaric, violence in the streets was actually quite rare.
Warfare – Roman generals completely redesigned every facet of iron-aged warfare. Where other armies would merely mass their soldiers tightly together and then rush them forward to take the field, the Romans used complex battle formations that could adapt to every condition. And because they fought against armies from nearly every style of fighting, they were able to develop an organizational memory of tactics and counter tactics that modern armies still study. Using professional soldiers instead of farmer/conscripts meant that the army could travel and fight during the planting and harvest seasons, and standing armies were constantly drilled in battle-tactics and fighting skills.
Other armies had almost all of their soldiers hold a long spear, knowing that if they stood shoulder to shoulder and in densely packed lines the farmer/conscripts were less likely to run away from battle. Using the sword takes even more bravery, and usually degenerates into repeated downward hacking until you or your opponent falls down. Both styles have their strength and drawbacks, so the Romans developed contingencies against both. In addition to specialization of warriors and intricate battle strategies, they also made sure that each trooper was trained to use a series of throwing and impact spears as well as the sword, dagger and shield on his own initiative as the particular situation required. Their greatest weakness was in trying to close battle with armies composed exclusively of mounted archers. Romans had cavalry, but it was not possible for them to win a battle without the use of their superb infantry.
Soldier
All Roman citizens were expected to perform at least a few years of military service, and during the initial years of the Republic all soldiers were freeborn landowners from the various Latin tribes. This changed slowly during the centuries, with the strength of the army increasing from the hiring and training of mercenary soldiers. By the later years of the Empire, the army was in fact exclusively professional. These soldiers were recruited from every corner of the globe, often from defeated armies, taught to speak and read in Latin, and underwent rigorous training. When on campaign, the basic minimal payment was usually paid at least in part by quantities of salt (from which we gain the term “salary”). Salt was easy to transport, easy to measure and divide, and accepted as a universal barter commodity no matter where in the world the soldier may find himself. It was universally recognizable, and thus more commonly accepted even than gold. An additional, and occasionally more lucrative, source of income was the distribution of whatever might be looted from defeated towns, a common practice of warfare in every century. Basic food was provided to every soldier; usually a large quantity of bread supplemented by what ever meat or vegetables could be purchased or plundered from the surrounding villages. (In a detail indicative of the planning and perspicacity of the Roman military administration, the standard loaf of bread was large enough to feed two soldiers. At mealtime, each loaf was handed out to a pair of soldiers. One soldier would cut the loaf in half; the other would take his pick of which half he wanted. Disputes over portion size were eliminated.) Clothing was provided appropriate for the terrain in which they marched, and this was probably the first army in which none of the soldiers were barefoot.
Each soldier was expected to carry 50 lbs while on the march, a number gathered from careful calculation and observation. (Interestingly, 21st century US soldiers are being required to carry 70 lbs, and are suffering severe maneuverability problems when on patrol).
Training for the soldiers covered three areas. Basic strength and running exercises to promote toughness and speed in battle [especially heavy during the initial months after recruitment], and then specific training in the use of sword, spear and shield. Finally, intricate drill while in unit formation created an army which could instantly respond to a general’s battlefield commands.
The sword, short and stocky, was worn either on a belt at waist level, or on a sash a little higher than waist level, and worn on the right side of the body rather than on the left. In this, the Romans were unique among sword wearers the world over, but as with all other details, this was carefully thought out and based on very practical needs. Wearing the sword slightly higher than most means that it doesn’t bother the legs when marching or running. Wearing the sword on the right side of the body rather than the left was a practical adaptation of the style of Roman attack.
The legionnaire might approach battle with five weapons; thee spears, a sword and a knife. The first two spears were “Pilum”, light throwing spears tossed javelin-like at the opposing army to weaken the front line. The enemy was doing the same with regular spears, which the Romans would grab and throw back. But the enemy could not do the same with the pilum, for unlike a traditional spear, the pilum had a very long thin neck of iron. If a pilum struck a shield and stuck to it, the enemy couldn’t simply hack off the spear. Thus the shield was instantly rendered heavy and useless. If the pilum bounced off of the shield or hit the ground, the soft iron shaft would bend, making it useless to try and throw back to the Romans. Roman shields were curved, not flat, so enemy spears tended to glance off. Those perfectly good spears could then be thrown back at the enemy. So even with an identical number of soldiers, the Romans would end up launching twice as many spears.
The third spear, heavy and traditional in construction, was used for actual engagement with the enemy. Once the lines of infantry begin to press into each other, spear to spear can quickly become shield to shield. All soldiers would lean forward with the left side of the body, since the shield can be braced against the left shoulder. But if the sword is worn on the left, as almost all other armies did, suddenly it can get pressed against the shield and made impossible to reach with the right hand. Roman soldiers, wearing the sword on the right, were not encumbered in this way, and could press forward with shield, then at the right time drop the spear, draw the sword, and start in on close fighting.
Roman soldiers were among the few to have specifically trained in using the sword in a variety of ways. Whereas most other soldiers would simply raise the sword arm high and bring it crashing down diagonally on an opponent, a favored and successful Roman tactic was to use the edge of the shield to lift up the opponent’s shield and then thrust the sword into the exposed belly. [As the shortsword is very sturdy and practical in even the closest of quarters, use of the knife was not ever considered a battlefield tool and was mainly used for camp needs.] Battlefield maneuvers included not only tight formations of shield against shield for maximum defense, but also those which gave up to three feet of space between front line fighters so as to give them the most amount of space possible for individual sword fighting techniques.
But ultimately, the success of the Roman army rested on uniformity of actions by well-trained troops and the sophisticated supply and deployment of same by commander/engineers. It is interesting to note that for all its bellicosity, Rome did not value the warrior as did most other military regimes. There exist no epic poems of heroic warriors, only the paeans to victorious generals.
Gladiator
Although the gladiatorial contests began as public exhibitions of Roman army training bouts, by the time they became regularly scheduled contests at the Coliseum they were performed by disposable captives or very talented slaves and even a few prizefighting free citizens. As this was public entertainment, the types of weapons could cover anything found from any corner of the globe. It is here that the trident, casting net, club, long sword and hook are seen. Most of the serious contests would have paired fighters who had had a fair amount of training with the specific weapons they would be using. Those that survived the first season were prized for their natural fighting ability, and were given better treatment and more elaborate training. As such, they represented quite an investment by their owner/managers, so non-lethal injuries were preferred. Training therefore emphasized cuts (easier for a physician to stop bleeding) rather than thrusts. Having said that, deaths among them increased as time went on, in part to please an ever more jaded audience.
In the larger venues, gladiators would often be dressed and armed in different ways so as to provide more variety for the audience. The one we are most familiar with is the Retiarius, who fought with trident and net. Although it has become a movie staple to see a gladiator with net in almost every film about ancient Rome, in truth the Retiarius only fight against a Myrmillo (with shield and sword). The Myrmillo’s helmet had a large crest in the shape of a fish, and this battle was suppose to symbolize the ancient conflict of fisherman and his prey. Quite an audience favorite, apparently. Other match ups might recreate famous battles or mythical warriors. Another crowd pleaser was to have those from exotic territories fight with the unique weapons of their home country.
If a decision to kill a defeated but not wounded gladiator went to the crowd, it is true that the spectators would show their thumbs, but as to whether it was pointed up or down is unknown (although holding the fist out with the thumb pointing up was quite an insult in ancient Rome, similar to extending the middle finger in the United State, so it was not likely to be used to spare someone’s life.) The decision to execute a gladiator was usually made if he had performed particularly cowardly, not merely because he lost. Also, the old story of all gladiators entering the arena in a line and shouting to the Emperor, “We, who are about to die, salute you!”, is very dramatic, but also very much another Hollywood fiction. Only one warrior ever said it, and then only once, and he wasn’t even in Rome.
Gladiators were slaves, but also prizefighters, and earned substantial sums from their victories. After serving for three years, or if they fought exceptionally well, they could even purchase their freedom. Many did so, yet continued to fight on, earning in the arena far more than they could ever hope to from regular employment.
Weapons available – In general, Romans fought with weapons of inferior quality compared to those of their enemies. Romans were certainly capable of creating high quality steel, but preferred to make their weapons of a proto-steel version of iron. [Technically, the metal is still steel, but of such poor quality that I prefer to use the term iron, which better describes the nature of the finished product.] This metal made their weapons heavier and softer than their counterparts, and this was done on purpose. Why?
High quality steel takes a great deal of time to produce and then fashion into a weapon. It is the work of highly skilled specialists. The iron must be of good quality, the inclusion of carbon must be carefully calibrated, and the temperature during processing and tempering requires a well built, enclosed, and fairly large forge. Once completed, a steel sword is light, flexible, and has a resilient and tough edge. But it also is very expensive, and can chip easily and even snap in half. Repair to a finished blade is even more difficult than building a new one, so damage on the battlefield removes one warrior from the fight immediately, as a replacement sword could take several months to finish, and few were the warriors who could afford even one steel sword, let alone two.
An army on the move is better served by building its weaponry with cheap materials readily at hand. By using iron, they could be easily constructed and repaired at a regular open blacksmith’s forge. Even then, Roman swords were relatively soft, so the edges might gouge and the blade might bend, but only rarely break. And no matter what the damage, they could be repaired by someone with very little technical expertise. Finally, the low cost of construction meant that large quantities of weapons could be produced as reserve items. [No Roman general ever had to call out “My kingdom for a sword!”.]
All soldiers were issued the standard shortsword and shield, and whatever throwing and fighting spears were necessary for the given circumstances. Longswords of about three feet in length were used only by cavalry. By the last decades of the empire, as most soldiers were hired foreign mercenaries, more and more soldiers were simply allowed to use their own tribal weapons.